Personal insurancepersonal insuranceInsurance that is purchased by individuals and families for their risk needs. Such insurance includes life, health, disability, auto, homeowner, and long-term care. is insurance that is purchased by individuals and families for their risk needs. Such insurance includes life, health, disability, auto, homeowner, and long-term care. Group insurancegroup insuranceInsurance provided by the employer for the benefit of employees. is insurance provided by the employer for the benefit of employees. Group insurance coverage includes life, disability, health, and pension plans. Commercial insurancecommercial insuranceProperty/casualty insurance for businesses and other organizations. is property/casualty insurance for businesses and other organizations.

An insurance company is likely to have separate divisions within its underwriting department for personal lines, group lines, and commercial business. The criterion to assign insureds into their appropriate risk pool for rating purposes is different for each type of insurance. Staff in the personal lines division are trained to look for risk factors (e.g., driving records and types of home construction) that influence the frequency and severity of claims among individuals and families. Group underwriting looks at the characteristics and demographics, including prior experience, of the employee group. The commercial division has underwriting experts on risks faced by organizations. Personnel in other functional areas such as claims adjustment may also specialize in personal, group, or commercial lines.

Life/health insurancelife/health insuranceInsurance that covers exposures to the perils of death, medical expenses, disability, and old age. covers exposures to the perils of death, medical expenses, disability, and old age. Private life insurance companies provide insurance for these perils, and individuals voluntarily decide whether or not to buy their products. Health insurance is provided primarily by life/health insurers but is also sold by some property/casualty insurers. All of these are available on an individual and a group basis. The Social Security program provides substantial amounts of life/health insurance on an involuntary basis.

Property/casualty insuranceproperty/casualty insuranceInsurance that covers property exposures such as direct and indirect losses of property caused by perils such as fire, windstorm, and theft. covers property exposures such as direct and indirect losses of property caused by perils like fire, windstorm, and theft. It also includes insurance to cover the possibility of being held legally liable to pay damages to another person. Before the passage of multiple-line underwriting laws in the late 1940s and early 1950s, property/casualty insurance had to be written by different insurers. Now they frequently are written in the same contract (e.g., homeowner’s and commercial package policies, which will be discussed in later chapters).

A private insurer can be classified as either a life/health or a property/casualty insurer. Health insurance may be sold by either. Some insurers specialize in a particular type of insurance, such as property insurance. Others are affiliated insurers, in which several insurers (and sometimes noninsurance businesses) are controlled by a holding company; all or almost all types of insurance are offered by some company in the group.

Insurance is provided both by privately owned organizations and by state and federal agencies. Measured by premium income, the bulk of property/casualty insurance is provided by private insurers. Largely because of the magnitude of the Social Security program, however, government provides about one-third more personal insurance than the private sector. Our society has elected to provide certain levels of death, health, retirement, and unemployment insurance on an involuntary basis through governmental (federal and state) agencies. If we desire to supplement the benefit levels of social insurance or to buy property/casualty insurance, some of which is required, private insurers provide the protection.

Most private insurance is purchased voluntarily, although some types, such as automobile insurance or insurance on mortgages and car loans, are required by law or contracts. In many states, the purchase of automobile liability insurance is mandatory, and if the car is financed, the lender requires property damage coverage.

Government insurance is involuntary under certain conditions for certain people. Most people are required by law to participate in the Social Security program, which provides life, health, disability, and retirement coverage. Unemployment and workers’ compensation insurance are also forms of involuntary social insurance provided by the government. Some government insurance, such as flood insurance, is available to those who want it, but no one is required to buy it.

Lloyd’s of LondonLloyd’s of LondonThe oldest insurance organization in existence. is the oldest insurance organization in existence; it started in a coffeehouse in London in 1688. Lloyds conducts a worldwide business primarily from England, though it is also licensed in Illinois and Kentucky. It maintains a trust fund in the United States for the protection of insureds in this country. In states where Lloyd’s is not licensed, it is considered a nonadmitted insurer. States primarily allow such nonadmitted insurers to sell only coverage that is unavailable from their licensed (admitted) insurers. This generally unavailable coverage is known as excess and surplus lines insurance, and it is Lloyd’s primary U.S. business.

Lloyd’s does not assume risks in the manner of other insurers. Instead, individual members of Lloyd’s, called Names, accept insurance risks by providing capital to an underwriting syndicate. Each syndicate is made up of many Names and accepts risks through one or more brokers. Surplus lines agents—those who sell for excess and surplus lines insurers—direct business to brokers at one or more syndicates. Syndicates, rather than Names, make the underwriting decisions of which risks to accept. Various activities of Lloyd’s are supervised by two governing committees—one for market management and another for regulation of financial matters. The syndicates are known to accept exotic risks and reinsure much of the asbestos and catastrophic risk in the United States. They also insure aviation.

The arrangement of Lloyd’s of London is similar to that of an organized stock exchange in which physical facilities are owned by the exchange, but business is transacted by the members. The personal liability of individual Names has been unlimited; they have been legally liable for their underwriting losses under Lloyd’s policies to the full extent of their personal and business assets. This point is sometimes emphasized by telling new male members that they are liable “down to their cufflinks” and for female members “down to their earrings.” In addition to Names being required to make deposits of capital with the governing committee for financial matters, each Name is required to put premiums into a trust fund that makes them exclusively encumbered to the Name’s underwriting liabilities until the obligations under the policies for which the premiums were paid have been fulfilled. Underwriting accounts are audited annually to ensure that assets and liabilities are correctly valued and that assets are sufficient to meet underwriting liabilities. Normally, profits are distributed annually. Following losses, Names may be asked to make additional contributions. A trust fund covers the losses of bankrupt Names. A supervisory committee has authority to suspend or expel members.

Seldom does one syndicate assume all of one large exposure; it assumes part. Thus, an individual Name typically becomes liable for a small fraction of 1 percent of the total liability assumed in one policy. Historically, syndicates also reinsured with each other to provide more risk sharing. The practice of sharing risk through reinsurance within the Lloyd’s organization magnified the impact of heavy losses incurred by Lloyd’s members for 1988 through 1992. Losses for these five years reached the unprecedented level of $14.2 billion. Reinsurance losses on U.S. business were a major contributor to losses due to asbestos and pollution, hurricanes Hugo and Andrew, the 1989 San Francisco earthquake, the Exxon Valdez oil spill, and other product liabilities.

The massive losses wiped out the fortunes of many Names. In 1953, Lloyd’s consisted of 3,400 Names, most of whom were wealthy citizens of the British Commonwealth. By 1989, many less wealthy, upper-middle-class people had been enticed to become Names with unlimited liability, pushing the total number of Names to an all-time high of 34,000 in 400 syndicates. By mid-1994, only about 17,500 Names and 178 underwriting syndicates (with just ninety-six accepting new business) remained. As a result of the mammoth total losses (and bankruptcy or rehabilitation for many individual members), Lloyd’s had reduced underwriting capacity and was experiencing difficulty in attracting new capital. What started in a coffeehouse was getting close to the inside of the percolator.

Among Lloyd’s reforms was the acceptance of corporate capital. By mid-1994, 15 percent of its capital was from twenty-five corporations that, unlike individual Names, have their liability limited to the amount of invested capital. Another reform consisted of a new system of compulsory stop-loss insurance designed to help members reduce exposure to large losses. Reinsurance among syndicates has ceased.

Other forms of insurance entities that are used infrequently are not featured in this textbook.

For decades, savings banks in Massachusetts, New York, and Connecticut have sold life insurance in one of two ways: by establishing life insurance departments or by acting as agents for other savings banks with insurance departments. Savings banks sell the usual types of individual life insurance policies and annuities, as well as group life insurance. Business is transacted on an over-the-counter basis or by mail. No agents are employed to sell the insurance; however, advertising is used extensively for marketing. Insurance is provided at a relatively low cost.

Risk retention groups and captives are forms of self-insurance. Broadly defined, a captive insurance companycaptive insurance companyA company that provides insurance coverage to its parent company and other affiliated organizations. is a company that provides insurance coverage to its parent company and other affiliated organizations. The captive is controlled by its policyholder-parent. Some captives sell coverage to nonaffiliated organizations. Others are comprised of members of industry associations, resulting in captives that closely resemble the early mutual insurers.

Forming a captive insurer is an expensive undertaking. Capital must be contributed in order to develop a net worth sufficient to meet regulatory (and financial stability) requirements. Start-up costs for licensing, chartering, and managing the captive are also incurred. And, of course, the captive needs constant managing, requiring that effort be expended by the firm’s risk management department and/or that a management company be hired.

To justify these costs, the parent company considers various factors. One is the availability of insurance in the commercial insurance market. During the liability insurance crisis of the 1980s, for example, pollution liability coverage became almost nonexistent. Chemical and other firms formed captives to fill the void. Today, there is a big push for captives after the losses of September 11. Another factor considered in deciding on a captive is the opportunity cost of money. If the parent can use funds more productively (that is, can earn a higher after-tax return on investment) than the insurer can, the formation of a captive may be wise. The risk manager must assess the importance of the insurer’s claims adjusting and other services (including underwriting) when evaluating whether to create a captive. Insurers’ services are very important considerations. One reason to create a captive is to have access to the reinsurance market for stop-loss catastrophic coverage for the captive. One currently popular use of captives is to coordinate the insurance programs of a firm’s foreign operations. An added advantage of captives in this setting is the ability to manage exchange rate risks as well as the pure risks more common to traditional risk managers. Perhaps of primary significance is that captives give their parents access to the reinsurance market.

Federal and state government agencies account for nearly half of the insurance activity in the United States. Primarily, they fill a gap where private insurers have not provided coverage, in most cases, because the exposure does not adequately meet the ideal requisites for private insurance. However, some governmental programs (examples include the Maryland automobile fund, state workers’ compensation, insurance plans, crop insurance, and a Wisconsin life plan) exist for political reasons. Government insurers created for political goals usually compete with private firms. This section briefly summarizes state and federal government insurance activities.